Leitch, Maggie - EDAC631 History Assignment Week 3

 

Maggie Leitch 

EDAC 631-800 

Dr. Bo Chang 

January 31, 2022

 

Your Name	Commented On
Maggie Leitch	Shane Lanning Victoria Dixon

 

Summary of Adult Education in the 1920’s and 1930’s 

Introduction	The concept of adult education was largely non-existent prior to the 1920’s. Despite significant political and socio-economic unrest and change, adult education was established, popularized, and accepted during the 1920’s and 1930’s.
Highlights	The Carnegie Corporations contributions to the formation of alliances to promote and create curricula for adult education in the early 1920’s paved the way for other groups and individuals to establish continuing education opportunities in formal, non-formal, and informal settings over the course of these two decades.
Influential Factors	Social and political crises/movements like the World Wars, the Great Depression, and the Civil Rights Movement inspired corporations, groups, and individuals to examine societal issues to try to find a solution for the problems they identified. The general conclusion was that more education in society would be the catalyst to positive societal change.
Implications	Although there are many factors that can still be improved, including affordability for continuing, formal education, today’s concept of adult education, and its accessibility is a direct result of the transformation of adult education during the 1920’s and 1930’s.

 

Adult Education in the 1920’s and 1930’s (Introduction)

            The 1920’s and 1930’s saw a surge in interest for adult education. Prior to this time period, there was little focus on continuing education in the United States, and, as unrest swept America and the world at large, theories on how to solve some of society’s major problems became a focus of interest. Companies, foundations, and individuals all reached similar conclusions: Many of society’s problems could be solved by having a better educated and prepared population. This conclusion was the inspiration for several movements that changed the course of education as a whole, but especially adult education. (Rachal, N.D.)  

 

Historical and Educational Events from 1920 – 1939 (Highlights/Influential Factors)

 

The 1920’s and the 1930’s were filled with a number of large historical events and social and political unrest:

 

1920	Women’s suffrage; Prohibition in the US
1921	WWI ends; Irish Free State established
1922	Mussolini marches on Rome; Insulin discovered
1923	Hitler imprisoned; President Harding dies
1924	Lenin dies and Stalin becomes Soviet dictator
1925	Nellie Tayloe Ross becomes the first female governor in the US; Mein Kampf published
1926	British General Strike occurs
1927	Lindbergh flies across the Atlantic; First talking movie premiers; German economy collapses
1928	Herbert Hoover becomes US president; First Oxford Dictionary is published; Penicillin is discovered
1929	Stock market crashes in the US, beginning the Great Depression
1930	Stalin initiates collectivizing agriculture in the USSR; Gandhi forms Salt March; Pluto discovered
1931	US officially adopts the national anthem; Empire State Building complete
1932	Amelia Earhart flies solo across the Atlantic; Scientists split the atom
1933	FDR launches the New Deal; Albert Einstein emigrates to the US; Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany
1934	The Dust Bowl
1935	Germany issues Nuremberg Laws; Social security enacted in US
1936	Spanish Civil War begins; Hoover Dam completed; How to Win Friends and Influence People published by Carnegie
1937	Hindenberg disaster; Japan invades China
1938	The War of the Worlds is broadcast and causes mass panic; Chamberlain announces “Peace in Our Time”
1939	WWII begins; Germany and USSR sign Non-Aggression Pact; Helicopter invented

 

(Rosenberg, 2019) Despite the end and beginnings of wars, economic downfall, technological advances, and scientific advances, the realm of adult education also made huge strides forward.

            Some of the highlights of the adult education movement during this time were:

1920	The Carnegie Corporation becomes interested in adult education and identifies national issues that can be solved with furthering education
1921	Books gain popularity as a source of cultural education; the Workers Education Bureau was formed; Brookwood Labor College opened; “Teachers Word Book” published by Thorndike
1922	Non-formal education began in companies to train employees
1923	The New School focuses on Adult Education (and later became a degree-granting university)
1924	KYW radio in Chicago becomes the first US radio station to broadcast health education in conjunction with the Chicago YMCA; Progressive Movement begins; American Library Adult Education Movement begins
1925	John Dewey publishes “Experience and Nature”
1926	The Carnegie Corporation forms the American Association for Adult Education
1927	“The Measurement of Intelligence” is published by Thorndike
1928	The Affiliated Schools for Women Workers forms summer schools for women under Hilda Smith
1929	The National Literacy Campaign began and focused on minority populations; Henry Ford Museum founded
1930	Branch of Education created by the National Park Service
1931	President Hoover’s National Advisory Committee on Education reported that public schools were in “generally good condition”
1932	The Highlander Folk School is founded by Myles Horton
1933	The New Deal program begins; Columbia University launches the first adult education program
1934	The First Handbook of Adult Education is published; New Deal Teacher Training Center opens
1935	The Workers Progress Administration is formed
1936	“Adult Education” by Lyman Bryson is the first adult education textbook to be published
1937	Brookwood Labor College closes; Registration for 20,000 general education classes reaches 200,000 participants
1938	“The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis” is published by Skinner; “Experience and Education” is published by Dewey
1939	Centers for Continuing Education by Kellogg established; “The Grapes of Wrath” published by Steinbeck

 (Rosenberg, 2019)

Adult Education and the Public (Highlights/Influential Factors)

Prior to 1924, the term “adult education” was basically unheard of. Although Carl Milam used the term “adult education” in 1920, it wasn’t until the American Library Association and the American Association of Adult Education began working together and sharing ideas between 1924 and 1933 that the term was coined and used regularly. (Rachal, N.D.)  In 1924, the ALA Executive Board decided to create a Commission on the Library and Adult Education. With the financial support of the Carnegies, an ALA supporter and staff of the Carnegie Foundation, William Learned, predicted that city libraries would “be an institution of astonishing power--a genuine community university bringing intelligence systematically and persuasively to bear on all adult affairs.” Further, Learned stated that, if the city libraries were well-organized on a national level, “it would immediately take its place as the chief instrument of our common intellectual and cultural progress.” (Rachal, N.D.)

Despite ambitious, positive aspirations, the term “adult education” quickly became viewed by members of the public as remedial. The ALA’s “Reading with a Purpose” came under public scrutiny in 1930, and was viewed as the ALA attempting to tell people what to do/learn/read. Some even stated that the concept of adult education was outdated and was simply an ode to “old English culture” that completely neglected the American culture of education. Philip Youtz, in 1929, retorted that people who opposed the movement assumed that it was to make up for lack of education in childhood, thereby demeaning the knowledge they already possessed. When, in fact, it was simply meant to allow adults the opportunity to continue to learn and grow and prevent “adult starvation,” as he put it. Although there was some initial resistance to the adult education movement, this time period saw significant growth and establishment of various other programs and groups to encourage life-long learning.  (Rachal, N.D.)

Although the concept of adult education continued through the 1920’s, the Great Depression in the 1930’s brought to the forefront the issues surrounding American education. Although public education was provided to everyone at this time, the quality of education varied greatly from region to region and created steep inequities amongst different populations. Regions that were already poor or populated by minorities suffered greatly, and the decline of the economy meant that these areas were forced to reallocate resources away from the already struggling public school systems. Naturally, this resulted in adults emerging from the public-school system who had lower chances of entering college or participating in well-paying jobs/trades due to lack of educational opportunities. (U*X*L American Decades, 2022)

Notable Figures of Adult Education (Influential Factors)

In an attempt to ease the educational gap caused by these factors, multiple organizations and proponents of adult education worked to encourage adults to view the opportunity for continuing education in a positive light, and provide opportunities for learning and growth. In addition to the formation of groups, committees, and alliances that were formed during this time period, several individuals also made huge contributions to the adult education movement. To highlight just a few:

Emily Griffith founded the Denver Opportunity School in 1916 in an attempt to deliver education to anyone, regardless of social status, race, ethnicity, gender, etc. The Denver Opportunity School was funded by the Denver Public Schools, and was open and free to anyone who wished to attend. Griffith’s goal was to provide accessible education to enrich people’s lives and improve society as a whole. Griffith’s passion and the accessibility of education she provided made her a leader of the adult education movement in the US, and inspired similar programs in Germany, Greece, Russia, and England. (Duncan, 2020)

Edward Lee Thorndike’s, and later B. F. Skinner’s, psychological study of learning gave the world of education greater understanding of and insight to teaching and learning. Thorndike’s S-R (stimulant/response) framework of behavioral psychology, or Connectionism, was specifically applied to teaching/learning of math, spelling and reading, intelligence, and adult learning. His research helped educators better understand the process and mechanics of learning and how to best teach people of all ages. (Culatta, 2022)

Myles Horton, Don West, Jim Dombrowski, and a few others founded the Highlander Folk School in 1932, which brought the concept of real education, by real people, for the real world, into focus. A major contributor to the education of the “common people,” delivered without cost or prejudice, allowed huge social and civil rights advancements by his students that continues today. These individuals inspired an entire class of people, and made adult education relatable and accessible for those who may have not had the opportunity for continued learning otherwise. (Highlander Research & Education Center, N.D.)

Mary Jane McLeod Bethune was “one of the most important black educators, civil and women’s rights leaders[,] and government officials of the 20^th century.” In 1929, Bethune established the Bethune-Cookman College, which set the educational standards that are used in black colleges today. In 1936, Bethune served on FDR’s “unofficial ‘black cabinet’” and was a leading force to end discrimination against African Americans and end the barbaric practice of lynching. She dedicated her life to establishing equality for African Americans in all aspects of life and society, and fought to ensure equal education opportunities for all. (Michals, 2015)

Conclusion (Implications)

            The committees, groups, schools, corporations, etc. that were established in the 1920’s and 1930’s paved the way for our modern ideas and concepts of adult education. These two decades saw explosive growth in the realm of adult and public education, with founders and proponents who were passionate about accessibility of education for all. Without these ground-breaking efforts, it is possible that the growth and popularity of adult education would be completely different than it is today. Although there is plenty of room for improvement in the accessibility and affordability of formalized continuing education for adults, we, as a society, still benefit from all types of continuing education, including non-formal and informal education practices. The effort of those involved in the popularization of adult education in the 1920’s and 1930’s paved the way for modern education as we know it.

References

Culatta, R. (2022). “Connectionism (Edward Thorndike).” https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/connectionism/. 

Duncan, E. (2020, July 7). “Emily Griffith.” https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/emily-griffith.

Highlander Research and Education Center. (N.D.). “88 years of fighting for justice.” https://highlandercenter.org/our-history-timeline/.

Michals, D. (2015). “Mary McLeod Bethune (1875 – 1955).” https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/mary-mcleod-bethune.

Rachal, J. R. (N.D.). The American library adult education movement: The diffusion of knowledge and the democratic ideal, 1924-1933. https://roghiemstra.com/rachal.html. 

Rosenberg, J. (N.D.). 1920’s Timeline. http://history1900s.about.com/od/timelines/tp/1920timeline.htm.

Stubblefield, H. W. & Keane, P. (1994). Adult education in the American experience: From the colonial period to the present. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

U*X*L American Decades. (2022, Jan. 24). “The 1930’s Education: Overview.” https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/culture-magazines/1930s-education-overview.